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Workspace 2006 Timelines | |
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Lucia di Lammermoor - Lyric Opera of Kansas City Director: Marc Verzatt Designer R. Keith Brumley Date: March 2006 December 30, 2005 Design Worksession - Timelines TIMELINE OF BRITISH HISTORY 1800-1900 click to jump here TIMELINE OF SOUTHERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 1800-1900 click to jump here
Scottish Timeline: 1660 to 1700
14 May 1660: Charles Stewart is proclaimed King of England, Scotland and Ireland while still in Holland. 25 May 1660: King Charles II sails from Holland to Dover: the monarchy is restored. January 1661: The Scottish Parliament meets under its Commissioner, the Earl of Middleton. On 28 March it revokes every law passed since the year of Charles I's accession, 1633. This rolls back the Covenants and restores ultimate power to the King in London. 27 May 1661: The Marquis of Argyll is executed in Edinburgh for his role during Charles II's 1650-1 reign. A number of other extreme Presbyterians are executed later in the year, though Neil Macleod, who had betrayed Montrose at Ardveck Castle escapes. Charles II is also settling scores in England, where many of those responsible for his father's death are executed. 6 September 1661: Charles II restores episcopal government to Scotland by royal decree. Alternative services called conventicles, often held in the open air, that spring up in an effort to retain a Presbyterian approach, are later made illegal. 13 November 1666: A dispute between conventiclers and soldiers near Dumfries grows rapidly into a protest march on Edinburgh. The marchers are turned back from the city gates, then caught at Rullion Green, on the edge of the Pentland Hills by General Tam Dalyell and 3,000 government troops. Some of the marchers are killed during the battle, others are hung after being captured. February 1671: Rob Roy MacGregor is born at Glengyle at the head of Loch Katrine. 3 May 1679: Archbishop James Sharp, Primate of Scotland, is attacked and killed while travelling through Fife to St Andrews. The attackers are probably waiting for the Sheriff of Fife, but happy to murder instead the man leading the forces suppressing the Covenant in Scotland. It sparks a wider uprising leading to what is known as the "Killing Time". 29 May 1679: Covenanters under Sir Robert Hamilton take Rutherglen before evading government troops. 1 June 1679: The troops chasing Hamilton encounter a large conventicle of many thousands of people taking place in Ayrshire at Loudoun Hill. The Battle of Drumclog that follows sees the troops overwhelmed by much larger numbers of largely unarmed Covenanters and they flee. 22 June 1679: Covenanters gather at Bothwell, near the River Clyde, throughout June but are unable to agree a common manifesto. Meanwhile the government gathers its forces under the Duke of Monmouth, one of Charles II's many illegitimate offspring. The two sides meet at the Battle of Bothwell Brig (Bridge) and the Covenanters are routed with the loss of 800 killed and twice as many taken prisoner. 24 November 1679: James, Duke of York - Charles II's brother and heir to the throne - is appointed the King's Viceroy in Scotland. 22 July 1680: The radical Presbyterian Richard Cameron attempts to lead an uprising against the King. He is killed by government troops at the Battle of Airds Moss in Ayrshire. 1681: James summons the Scottish Parliament to pass the Test Act under which anyone seeking office in Scotland will have to swear a comprehensive oath to the King. The effect is to alienate large parts of the population. 27 July 1681: The Reverend Donald Cargill, who in October 1680 had excommunicated the entire government, is beheaded in Edinburgh. 12 January 1682: The Presbyterians become an underground movement of resistance to the crown and government. Sporadic violence continues on both sides. 1682: The Advocates' Library is founded. It later forms the core of the National Library of Scotland. December 1684: The government produce an "Abjuration Oath" which all Scots are required to swear on pain of death. Many Scots are killed as a result, especially in the south west. 12 February 1685: Charles II dies after conversion to the Catholic Church on his deathbed. He is succeeded by his brother James Stewart, Duke of York as James II of England and VII of Scotland. James Stewart has been a convert to Catholicism for some time. 13 May 1685: The execution of James Kirk near Dumfries for refusing to swear the oath is one of the last of the wave of deaths of the "Killing Time". 20 May 1685: The Earl of Argyll sails from Holland to Campbeltown with 300 men in an attempted uprising. It fails and he is executed. June 1687: James II/VII issues an Indulgence giving complete religious toleration to all denominations. The Scots see it as a precursor to greater Roman Catholic influence. 17 February 1688: James Renwick, leader of the remaining Covenanter Presbyterian rebels, is executed in Edinburgh. 10 June 1688: James II/VII and his wife Mary of Modena have a son, christened James Francis Edward. Many Scots - and English - are concerned by the prospect of a continuing Catholic Stewart dynasty. 5 November 1688: William of Orange lands in south west England with a huge army. He has come at the invitation of representatives of the English nobility and church. His wife Mary is James II/VII's daughter and until the birth of James Francis Edward was the heir to the throne. 9 December 1688: Serious rioting in Edinburgh spreads across Scotland. 25 December 1688: James II/VII sails to France after a largely bloodless coup by William and Mary. 22 January 1689: An English convention declares that James II/VII has in practice abdicated; and sets out the basis on which his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange can succeed to the throne. This includes their accepting the primacy of Parliament and the stipulation that no Roman Catholic or spouse of a Roman Catholic can take the crown. 13 February 1689: King William III and Queen Mary are declared joint sovereigns of England and Ireland. 14 March 1689: A Scottish Convention is divided between Williamite supporters of William and Mary, and Jacobite supporters of James II/VII. They consider a reasoned and courteous letter from William, and an arrogant and threatening letter from James Stewart which fatally undermines his own support. The Convention decides James has forfeited his right to the crown, which should be offered instead to William and Mary. 11 May 1689: William and Mary are crowned joint sovereigns of Scotland, though it is unclear whether they have first formally accepted the constitutional principles set by the Scottish Convention. 27 July 1689: The leader of Jacobite dissent in Scotland is Viscount Dundee who gathers an army of Highlanders and a few Irish at Blair Castle. As General Mackay moves a government army of lowland troops north from Dunkeld the two sides meet at the Battle of Killiecrankie. The outcome is a victory for the Jacobites, but at a high cost including the death of Viscount Dundee, or "Bonnie Dundee" as he is remembered. 21 August 1689: The Jacobite highland army attacks government forces in and around Dunkeld and its Cathedral at the Battle of Dunkeld. Both sides suffer heavy losses and much of the town is destroyed. 1 May 1690: The last organised Jacobite forces are beaten by government troops at Cromdale, near Grantown on Spey. 11 July 1690: William of Orange convincingly defeats James II/VII at the Battle of the Boyne, north of Dublin in Ireland. James returns to France from Ireland, and the hopes of Scottish Jacobites of his return to Scotland evaporate. June 1691: Highland Clan Chiefs who have been opposed to William are offered bribes and an amnesty on condition they swear oaths of allegiance to him. 13 February 1692: The Glencoe Massacre takes place to punish the Macdonalds for the failure of their chief to swear allegiance to William. Full details can be found on our Glencoe feature page. March 1693: Horse-drawn Hackney cabs come into service on the streets of Glasgow. 1695: The Scottish Parliament passes an Act establishing the "Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies" with powers to colonise and make trade treaties. Strong financial backing from London evaporates when the English Parliament provides for the prosecution of English shareholders, so the funding is raised in Scotland with a view to regenerating the economy of the country. It sucks in over a quarter of the total available funds in Scotland. 1696: The Company of Scotland decides to build a colony at Darien in Central America. July 1698: Five ships and 1,200 colonists leave Leith for Darien. November 1698: The colonists land in Darien at what they call Caledonia and found a settlement called New Edinburgh and a fort called Fort St Andrews. April 1699: King William prohibits English colonies in the new world trading with the Scots in Caledonia. He is anxious not to antagonise the Spanish, who claim Darien for themselves. June 1699: The survivors of Caledonia set sail for Scotland via New York, with only 300 of the 1,200 who originally left Leith completing the return journey. September 1699: The second Darien expedition sets sail from Scotland 12 days before news arrives from New York that the colony has been abandoned. The expedition is rapidly supplemented by a small military force. 1699: The Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge set out to suppress the Gaelic language. Timeline: 1700 to 1740March 1700: Following their arrival in Caledonia in November 1699, the second Darien expedition faces skirmishes with the Spanish and is eventually forced to abandon their efforts in the face of these superior forces. The Darien venture costs Scotland many hundreds of lives and a quarter of its total available resources. It coincides with a series of failed harvests in Scotland that leaves up to a quarter of the population dying of starvation. 30 July 1700: William and Mary's heir, her nephew the Duke of Gloucester, dies. Mary had died childless in 1694 and there is no other heir available. Summer 1701: The English Parliament passes the Act of Settlement. The heir to the crowns of England and Ireland, after William and Mary's surviving sister Anne, is to be the Protestant grand-daughter of King James I/VI, Sophie, the Electress of Hanover. The succession will then pass in turn her 40 year old son, Prince George of Hanover. The Scottish Parliament is not consulted. 5 September 1701: James II/VII dies in France. His claim to the throne and the Jacobite cause pass to his 13 year old son, James Francis Edward Stewart. He is recognised by the French King as King James VIII/III of Great Britain, in effect declaring war on William. 8 March 1702: King William dies after a fall from his horse. He is succeeded by his sister in law, Queen Anne, who becomes the last Stewart monarch. April 1703: The Edinburgh Fire Brigade is formed. 1703: The Scottish Parliament passes the Act of Security, under which Scotland will not in future be bound to accept the same monarch as England unless Scotland is accorded completely free trade with England and the colonies. Royal Assent is refused by the Queen's Commissioner. 5 August 1704: The Scottish Parliament refuses to raise taxes and threatens to withdraw troops from Marlborough's army in France unless the crown accepts the Act of Security and it is given Royal Assent. It is. 5 February 1705: The English Parliament pass the Alien Act designed to secure English interests from what they see as the subversion of the Scottish Parliament. In effect, the Scots are invited to negotiate a full union with England, on pain of seizure of Scottish assets and the ending of Scottish exports to England if they do not. Spring 1705: Three crew of the English ship Worcester are hanged in Edinburgh on suspicion of piracy against a Scottish Darien Company ship. Spring 1706: The Anglo-Scottish Parliamentary Commission meets to agree a draft Treaty of Union. 3 October 1706: The Scottish Parliament begins its debate on the Treaty of Union between Scotland and England. 16 January 1707: The Scottish Parliament agrees the Treaty of Union by 110 votes to 67. The debate preceding it is carried out against a backdrop of growing anti-union unrest across Scotland. The outcome is driven by economic necessity, by overt compensation for Scotland's national debts and the losses of Darien investors, and, allegedly, by covert bribes for key participants. 19 March 1707: The English Parliament ratifies the Treaty of Union. 25 March 1707: The Scottish Parliament adjourns, and is dissolved three days later. 1 May 1707: The Treaty of Union comes into effect. 23 October 1707: The first Parliament of Great Britain meets in London. 6 March 1708: Prince James Stewart, "the Pretender", sails from Dunkirk with a French fleet for Scotland with 5,000 troops. His aim is to raise and lead a Jacobite uprising against Queen Anne. 13 March 1708: The French fleet arrives in the Firth of Forth, but is then attacked by the Royal Navy. The fleet, and Prince James, escapes and returns to Dunkirk without landing. 1 August 1714: Queen Anne dies and is succeeded by George, Elector of Hanover, under the terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement. George cannot speak English and is not popular in England. 6 September 1715: The Earl of Mar leads an uprising for "King James" at Braemar that attracts widespread support in north east Scotland. 14 September 1715: The Jacobites take Perth. 13 November 1715: At the Battle of Sherrifmuir near Dunblane the Jacobite army under the Earl of Mar is prevented from taking southern Scotland by a much smaller government force. 13 November 1714: A Jacobite uprising in northern England is cornered and defeated in Preston. 22 December 1715: Prince James, the Pretender, lands at Peterhead before moving through Aberdeen and Dundee to the Earl of Mar's Headquarters at Perth. 31 January 1716: The Jacobites abandon Perth in the face of reinforced government forces. 4 February 1716: Prince James boards a ship at Montrose and leaves Scotland for the continent. The Earl of Mar follows shortly afterwards. The Jacobite army simply disbands and dissolves. "The 1715" is over. 10 May 1716: A small Spanish force, believing itself to be part of a much larger invasion planned for England to return the Jacobites to power, lands in Loch Duich, inland from the site of Kyle of Lochalsh. Royal Navy ships destroy the Spanish headquarters at Eilean Donan Castle. 10 June 1719: The Spanish troops, now supported by only 1000 Highland Jacobites, are defeated at the Battle of Glenshiel which takes place on the steep mountainsides flanking the Glen. The Spanish surrender but their part in the battle is remembered by the name of the overlooking mountain, Sgurr nan Spainnteach, or Peak of the Spaniards. 1720: The Earl of Islay is appointed Secretary of Scotland. 31 December 1720: Prince James, now living in what later becomes Italy, has a son, Charles Edward Stuart, or "Bonnie Prince Charlie". 1723: The Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in Scotland is formed to help improve farming methods. Its main aim is to find ways to make the Highlands more economically productive and it is instrumental in the clearances that begin later in the century. 25 December 1724: General George Wade is put in command of the army in Scotland. He begins the construction of hundreds of miles of good "military" roads and stone bridges designed to allow government troops to counter future uprisings with greater ease. 23 June 1725: Serious rioting breaks out in Glasgow in protest at Westminster-imposed taxes on Scottish malt. 1725: The Disarming Act forbids Highlanders from carrying arms in public, a long standing custom. 1726: The Edinburgh University faculty of medicine is set up. It is followed in 1729 by the opening of the the Edinburgh Infirmary. 1727: George I is succeeded by George II. 1730: The first systematic emigration begins from highland areas to American colonies, largely in response to rent increases. 28 December 1734: Rob Roy MacGregor dies at his home in Balquhidder Glen. 14 April 1736: A riot provoked by the Captain of the City Guard in Edinburgh, Captain Porteous, leads to nine deaths. Portous is later found guilty of murder. 7 September 1736: An Edinburgh crowd waiting to witness Captain Porteous's execution hear he has been pardoned. That night they break into his cell and publicly lynch him. None of those responsible is caught and the City of Edinburgh is fined £2,000 over the incident. 8 November 1736: Scotland's first public theatre opens in Carruber's Close, Edinburgh.
TIMELINE OF BRITISH HISTORY 1800-1900
• 1802 Newly elected to the Royal Academy, painter Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851), taking advantage of the temporary peace between Britain and France, visits Switzerland and France. During his travels, he produces watercolors of the Alpine landscape, as well as paintings in the style of old masters—particularly Titian, Salomon van Ruysdael, and Claude Lorrain—whose work he studies in the Louvre. Turner's first visit to the Continent deepens the artist's experience of landscape and marine painting and expands his ambition to elevate the genre with experiments in light and color that convey the Sublime: Nature simultaneously at its most beautiful and most terrifying. • 1804 Visionary poet, painter, and printmaker William Blake (1757–1827) begins Jerusalem, the ninth and last of his Books of Prophecy; his most ambitious undertaking, it occupies him until 1820. The epic poem, illustrated with 100 plates—Blake refers to his technique as "illuminated printing"—represents in the allegorical figures of Albion (England) and Jerusalem a divided humanity as it struggles to reunite. Blake, whose art defies stylistic categorization, is alienated in his own lifetime; however, his bitter opposition to moral oppression and social evils in the wake of the Industrial Revolution, and his lifelong efforts to liberate the imagination, resonate deeply with artists and writers of the Romantic movement. • 1809 When his first volume of poetry, Hours of Idleness (1807), meets with scathing critique in the Edinburgh Review, George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788–1824) responds with English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, a satire in heroic couplets. Later in the year he sails for Greece by way of Lisbon, Spain, Malta, and Albania; the Mediterranean landscape, its legendary history, and the spirit of the Greek people profoundly impress the young poet. Byron's posthumous portrait of about 1835 (National Portrait Gallery, London) by Thomas Phillips (1770–1845) depicts him in Albanian dress, and pays homage to the poet's affinity with the Near East as well as the contemporary taste for Orientalism. During his journey, Byron begins an autobiographical poem, later published in four cantos as Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–18). Byron returns to London in 1811, where his verse—lyrical, philosophical, and often melancholic—along with his brooding good looks, wit, and a taste for romantic intrigue catapult him to fame. After his death in Greece in 1824, where he spends his last days involved in the struggle for Greek independence, his friend Sir John Hobhouse commissions a monument by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen (1768/70–1844). For several years, the completed sculpture (1829–35; plaster model, 1831, Thorvaldsens Museum, Copenhagen), depicting the seated poet in contemporary dress, with one foot resting on a Doric column fragment, is denied installation at Westminster Abbey because of Byron's notoriously dissolute lifestyle. In 1845, it is installed in the library at Cambridge, Byron's alma mater. Byron's poetry is greatly admired by contemporary artists, particularly the French painter Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863). • 1811–20 The period known as the Regency is marked by a flowering of the arts and literature. As the mental illness of George III (r. 1760–1820) makes him unfit for rule, the government is placed in the hands of the prince of Wales, a young man with a fondness for decadence and gaiety (he later rules as George IV, 1820–30). He commissions alterations to the Royal Pavilion at Brighton from John Nash (1752–1835), an architect whose prolific output includes country homes and townhouses, as well as urban plans. Nash designs in both the Neoclassical and Picturesque styles, the latter characterized by asymmetry, purposeful surface irregularities, and the contrived effect of age, often by using medieval elements and motifs. Under Nash's direction, the Neoclassical Royal Pavilion becomes a Mughal-inspired pleasure palace topped with minarets and onion domes (1815–23). Also active at this time is the architect and collector John Soane (1753–1837), whose designs are characterized by a bold manipulation of classical orders and motifs, vastness of scale, and hidden light sources, as seen in his work on the Bank of England (1792–1833). The Regency period marks a pinnacle of Romantic literature in the poetry of Byron, John Keats (1795–1821), and Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), and the novels of Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832). Their works inspire visual artists throughout Europe, from Delacroix, who depicts a dramatic scene from Scott's Ivanhoe (1846; MMA 03.30), to John Everett Millais (1829–1896), whose Isabella (1849; Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool) relies on Keats' retelling of a tragic tale from Boccaccio's Decameron. • 1812 J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851) exhibits Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps (Tate, London) at the Royal Academy, in which he conveys the insignificance of man, powerless against the overwhelming forces of nature. The picture is accompanied by Turner's own verse, describing the crossing of 218 B.C., "While the fierce archer of the downward year / Stains Italy's blanch'd barrier with storms." The subject recalls Napoleon's more recent invasion of Italy via the Alps in 1797. • 1821 John Constable (1776–1837) paints The Hay Wain (National Gallery, London), a view of the rural Suffolk landscape, featuring a horse-drawn cart (the haywain of the picture's title) standing in the winding river Stour, with a cottage on its bank. The work receives little mention at the Royal Academy exhibition of 1821, but its naturalism wins great acclaim at the Paris Salon of 1824, where Constable is awarded a gold medal by Charles X. Constable produces full-scale oil sketches from nature—such as the view of Salisbury Cathedral (MMA 50.145.8)—for paintings that he executes in his studio. Constable's subjective approach to landscape painting echoes the Romantic ideals of individuality and personal feeling. • 1832 The first Reform Act is passed by Parliament, expanding suffrage and redistributing seats in the House of Commons to account for population shifts in various cities and boroughs as a result of the Industrial Revolution. The densely populated industrial cities of Manchester and Birmingham, along with other working-class communities, are represented in Parliament for the first time. • 1834 An overheated furnace in the House of Lords starts a fire that rages out of control and, within twenty-four hours, destroys most of Westminster Palace, the seat of the British Parliament. With this disaster, however, comes an opportunity for the redesign of a structure, originally conceived (and used, until 1512) as a royal residence, for the specific needs of the Parliament. Two years later, architect Charles Barry (1795–1860) submits his plan to a design competition for the rebuilding of Westminster Palace and secures the commission; construction begins in 1840. In 1844, Barry is joined by Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin (1812–1852). To Barry's architectural designs in the late Perpendicular Gothic style, Pugin adds countless decorative details in the Gothic Revival style. Under his direction, teams of painters, sculptors, tile makers and mosaic artists, woodworkers, and metalworkers aim to create a "new" medieval palace of such splendor to surpass the original. • 1834 Scientist William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877) invents a photographic process known as "photogenic drawing," five years before the invention of the daguerreotype. He dedicates the rest of his career to developing techniques that dramatically advance the medium of photography. • 1837 Victoria (1819–1901) ascends the throne of Great Britain, ruling until her death in 1901. Her reign is marked by British commercial, industrial, and political supremacy. In 1840, she marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Albert is an avid collector, particularly of early German and Italian Renaissance painting and contemporary art, and encourages Victoria's enthusiasm for patronage. In 1841, Albert is named chairman of the Royal Commission to advise on the decorative program for the new Houses of Parliament at the Palace of Westminster. Victoria and Albert commission a fresco series for their summer house on the Buckingham Palace grounds (destroyed), with scenes from Sir Walter Scott, Shakespeare, and John Milton, employing artists such as William Dyce (1806–1864), Charles Lock Eastlake (1793–1865), and Edwin Landseer (1802–1873). Landseer, a specialist in landscape and animal paintings, is a favorite of Victoria and Albert, for whom he produces many pictures, including portraits of the royal family—and their pets—such as Windsor Castle in Modern Times (1841–45; Royal Collection, Windsor Castle). They also commission numerous state portraits from German painter Franz Xaver Winterhalter (1805–1873). • 1838 The National Gallery opens in Trafalgar Square, London. Thirty-eight pictures, purchased in 1824 by the House of Commons from banker John Julius Angerstein (1735–1823), form the core of the collection; they are displayed at Angerstein's house in Pall Mall until a new gallery building, designed by William Wilkins (1778–1839), is complete. Trafalgar Square, at the time considered the very center of London, is chosen as the gallery site, as it is accessible to all members of London society, from the wealthy elite of the West End to the working classes of the East End. • 1842 onward Major excavations in northern Iraq, then part of the Ottoman Turkish empire, are undertaken by French and British diplomats and adventurers. Many of the monumental stone sculptures and reliefs discovered within ancient Assyrian royal palaces (dating from the ninth to seventh century B.C.) are shipped to London and Paris, prompting a vogue for all things Assyrian. Many architects and artists are influenced by the discoveries and an Assyrian Revival style flourishes in the second half of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. • 1848 It is the Year of Revolutions in Continental Europe, while in England a political reform group known as the Chartists stages a major uprising (ultimately unsuccessful) in London. Seven rebellious young artists, including William Holman Hunt (1827–1910), John Everett Millais (1829–1896), and Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882), form a secret society with the aim of reforming the art of painting in Britain. Calling themselves the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, these artists also have revolutionary aims: emulating the art of late medieval and early Renaissance Europe until the time of Raphael, they attempt to restore emotional purity and fidelity to nature to the visual arts. In this respect, they are strongly influenced by the Nazarene movement, which emerged in Germany and Rome earlier in the century. The Pre-Raphaelites often choose biblical and medieval subjects, or take up contemporary social issues such as the plight of the poor and prostitution—as in Hunt's Awakening Conscience (1853; Tate, London), depicting a kept woman in her opulent interior as she is moved by music to recognize the error of her ways. By the mid-1850s, the Brotherhood dissolves as its members pursue individual identities and separate artistic goals. • 1849 John Ruskin (1819–1900) publishes The Seven Lamps of Architecture, his first major work of art criticism. In it, he praises the union of architectural aesthetics and spirituality in the Gothic style. He follows this with The Stones of Venice (1851–53), comparing the Venetian Gothic and Renaissance with the ideals of national and domestic virtue embodied in the former, and the vices of corruption and dissolution in the latter. Ruskin is an ardent defender of the reformist goals of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, and a lifelong admirer and collector of Turner, whom he extols in a volume of his Modern Painters (1843–60). • 1851 The first world's fair, called the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, opens in London. Its chief proponent is Albert (1819–1861), prince consort of Victoria, who envisions the fair as "a living picture of the point of development at which the whole of mankind has arrived … and a new starting point from which all nations will be able to direct their further exertions." The Great Exhibition, as it is popularly known, is housed in Hyde Park in the massive Crystal Palace (damaged by fire in 1936, and demolished in 1941) designed by Sir Joseph Paxton (1803–1865). Paxton describes the structure as "the simplest—the merest mechanical building that could be made"; composed entirely of glass and cast iron, it is in itself a monument to the achievements of the Industrial Revolution, and its sheer vastness astounds visitors to the exhibition. Along with industrial exhibits are diverse examples of industrial and applied arts, musical instruments, textiles, and jewelry—from the Indian Koh-i-noor diamond in its original setting, to the gilt bronze and malachite desk set by British jeweler Charles Asprey (MMA 1982.88.1–8). No paintings are shown, as they are not considered products of mechanical achievement. Works purchased from the Great Exhibition form the nucleus of the South Kensington Museum, established in 1852 by Henry Cole (1808–1882) and later renamed the Victoria and Albert Museum. • 1856 Five years after his death, J. M. W. Turner's will is settled by a decree giving all original works in the artist's possession—about 300 oil paintings and more than 20,000 drawings—to the National Gallery in London. Divided for four decades among various exhibition venues, the Turner Bequest is permanently reunited at the opening of the National Gallery of British Art (now Tate Britain) in 1897. • 1857 John Sheepshanks (1787–1863) donates his collection of 233 paintings and 289 drawings to the British nation, with the idea of establishing a National Gallery of British Art. The works are installed in the South Kensington Museum (renamed Victoria and Albert Museum in 1899). • 1857 Encouraged by its affluent citizens to foster culture in a center of industry, the city of Manchester holds the Art-Treasures Exhibition. England's first blockbuster exhibition, it includes paintings from English private collections by masters such as Gainsborough, Titian, and Correggio, as well as many works now in the Metropolitan Museum. These include paintings by Perugino (11.65), Carlo Crivelli (13.178), Raphael (32.130.1), Annibale Carracci (1971.155), Guido Reni (59.32), Murillo (43.13), Lawrence (50.135.5), and oil sketches by Rubens (37.160.12; 42.187). • early 1860s The concept of "art for art's sake" is introduced to Britain by the painters Frederic Leighton (1830–1896) and James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834–1903), and the poet Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909). Originating as a literary term in France, l'art pour l'art, in the 1830s, promoted by writer Théophile Gauter (1811–1872), art for art's sake asserts that a work's formal properties—its organization, composition, coloring, and surface details—are more important than its subject, subverting meaning in favor of beauty. This notion gives rise to the Aesthetic movement in the arts and literature in Britain, and its champions, in addition to those above, include the writers Walter Pater (1839–1894) and Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), painter/designers Albert Joseph Moore (1841–1893) and Edward Burne-Jones (1833—1898), and the Pre-Raphaelite Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882). Rossetti's sensuously modeled female figures, rendered in a rich Venetian palette (see MMA 08.162.1), embody this cult of beauty. Whistler, in the Nocturne in Blue and Gold: Old Battersea Bridge (ca. 1872–75; Tate, London), rejects topographical details in an attempt to achieve "a certain harmony of color." Orientalism and japonisme inspire the Aesthetic movement, particularly in the decorative arts, exemplified in the designs of E. W. Godwin (1833–1886) and in the Holland Park home and studio of Frederic Leighton, where an Arab Hall of polychrome marble, glittering with mosaic tiles collected from Leighton's journeys to the East, serves as a gathering place for like-minded aesthetes. The Aesthetic movement flourishes in Britain through the 1880s, and influences the later Arts and Crafts movement. • 1861 William Morris (1834–1896) founds the design firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., employing the artists Ford Madox Brown (1821–1893), Edward Burne-Jones (1833–1898), Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882), and Philip Webb (1831–1915) as designers. In a prospectus, Morris describes his designers as artists who "have felt more than most people the want of some one place, where they could either obtain or get produced work of a genuine and beautiful character." For the firm, they design and produce mural decorations, architectural carvings, stained glass (see MMA 1998.231), metalwork, jewelry, furniture, embroidered items, and other decorative objects. A painstaking attention to detail, reliance on organic motifs, and a taste for medieval and legendary subjects distinguish handcrafted works by the firm from the mass-produced household objects made widely available by industrial progress. • 1862 The London International Exhibition is held in South Kensington, giving greater prominence to the fine and applied arts than in the first Great Exhibition of 1851. The exhibition features a display of Japanese crafts and artifacts, as well as a Medieval Court, for which the firm of William Morris (1834–1896) furnishes many objects, including a painted cabinet now in the Metropolitan Museum (26.54). • 1863 Sir George Gilbert Scott (1811–1878) designs a memorial to Prince Albert (died 1861). Commissioned by Queen Victoria and completed in 1872, the Albert Memorial, erected in Kensington Gardens, features a larger-than-life bronze statue of the prince seated beneath an immense Gothic tabernacle. Irish sculptor John Henry Foley (1818–1874) executes the sculpture of the prince, shown holding a copy of the catalogue from the Great Exhibition of 1851, as well as Asia, one of four marble groups of the Continents at the corners of the memorial. Henry Hugh Armstead (1828–1905) and John Birnie Philip (1824–1875) contribute a sculptural frieze that runs around its base, depicting 169 figures of the greatest composers, painters, architects, and sculptors from antiquity to the present. Called the Frieze of Parnassus, it is named after the mountain abode of the Muses and the site of the Oracle at Delphi. • 1863 Julia Margaret Cameron (1815–1879) receives a camera from her daughter and son-in-law. She goes on to photograph members of her family and cultural luminaries of her day—many of them close friends: poet laureate Alfred, Lord Tennyson, writer Thomas Carlyle, actress Ellen Terry, poet Robert Browning, and Charles Darwin, among others. Her admiration for the appearance and spirituality of fifteenth-century Italian painting informs her idealized photographic portraits, which draw from literary and biblical imagery. • 1875 William Morris (1834–1896) reorganizes his firm as Morris & Co., with himself as sole proprietor. It is around this time that he begins to design textiles and wall coverings with intricate botanical patterns. In 1890, Morris undertakes his last major business venture: the foundation of Kelmscott Press, which produces fifty-three elaborate handmade books between 1891 and 1898. • 1877 The Grosvenor Gallery in London holds its first show. Avant-garde artists such as Edward Burne-Jones (1833–1898), James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834–1903), and Albert Joseph Moore (1841–1893) welcome this alternative to exhibit at the Royal Academy, for which they share a common disdain. Among the most controversial works at the Grosvenor show is Whistler's Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket (1875; Detroit Institute of Arts), of which the critic John Ruskin writes, "I never expected to hear a coxcomb ask 200 guineas for flinging a pot of paint in the public's face." Whistler sues Ruskin for libel in 1878; he wins the trial, but his legal costs render him bankrupt, and he departs England for Venice in 1880. • 1877 Painter Frederic Leighton (1830–1896) exhibits the lifesize bronze sculpture An Athlete Wrestling with a Python (1874–77; Tate, London) at the Royal Academy. With its anatomical naturalism and dynamic pose, the work marks the beginning of a movement known by 1894 as the New Sculpture. The individual styles of the New Sculptors represent a radical departure from the conservative Neoclassicism of earlier Victorian sculpture and an attempt to reform sculpture in Britain. Edward Onslow Ford (1852–1901) imbues his figural sculpture with a sensuality that relies more upon naturalism than on traditional canons of beauty. In his memorial to the Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822) (ca. 1890; University College, Oxford), the drowned poet is shown nude, having washed ashore. The soft modeling of the recumbent nude emphasizes the poet's youth, and the languorous pose effects a meditative pathos. Hamo Thornycroft (1850–1925) depicts classical subjects, including Artemis and Her Hound (bronze, 1882; Eaton Hall, Cheshire) and Teucer (1882; Tate, London), with a vigorous realism, while works such as the Mower (1888–90; Tate, London) evoke the early Renaissance sculpture of Donatello. Prominent in the work of Alfred Gilbert (1854–1934) is a decorative aesthetic and elements of fantasy, which he uses to explore the Symbolist themes of fate, love, and death. Best known are his Winchester Jubilee Monument to Queen Victoria (1887–1912; Winchester, Great Hall), the memorial to Anthony Ashley-Cooper, earl of Shaftesbury, in the form of a fountain surmounted by the figure of Eros (1885–93; Piccadilly Circus, London), and the polychromed, mixed media tomb of Prince Albert Victor, duke of Clarence (1892–1928; Albert Memorial Chapel, Windsor Castle). • 1881 Theater impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte (1844–1901) builds the still-extant Savoy Theatre in London for the production of operettas by William S. Gilbert (1836–1911) and Arthur Sullivan (1842—1900). Sullivan's melodic ingenuity and parodical play upon the Italian bel canto style pair with Gilbert's witty libretti, which satirize Victorian culture and its preoccupations—law, the Peerage, naval supremacy, the role of women, Orientalism, and japonisme—in productions such as H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), The Pirates of Penzance (1879), Iolanthe (1882), and The Mikado (1885). • 1884 Five architects—Gerald Horsley (1862–1917), William Richard Lethaby (1857–1931), Mervyn Macartney (1853–1932), Ernest Newton (1856–1922), and E. S. Prior (1852—1932)—and a group of artists led by Lewis Foreman Day (1845–1910) and Walter Crane (1845–1915) and known as The Fifteen, form the Art Workers' Guild in London. This guild comprises the core of the Arts and Crafts movement, a term coined by the writer/bookbinder T. J. Cobden-Sanderson (1840–1922). Members of the guild, including Edward Burne-Jones (1833–1898), William Morris (1834–1896), and the architect Edwin Lutyens (1869–1944), profess a unity of the arts, placing as much importance on the design of simple domestic objects as on whole architectural structures. From the seeds planted by the Gothic Revival and Aestheticism, the Arts and Crafts movement represents a flowering of craftsmanship that takes as its chief inspiration the pre-Renaissance tradition of workshop production of objects both useful and beautiful. Other societies associated with this movement are the Home Arts and Industries Association, founded in 1884, which encourages the pursuit of crafts among the urban working classes, and the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded in 1888. The movement spreads to Ireland, where it becomes a vehicle for nationalism; to Scotland, where a distinct Glasgow Style emerges whose great exponent is the architect and designer Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928); and to the United States. • 1886 After his Portrait de Mme*** (Madame X; MMA 16.53) provokes a scandal at the Paris Salon of 1884, painter John Singer Sargent (1856–1925) settles in England with the aim of escaping an unwelcome notoriety. He works in an Impressionist style nourished by his contact with Claude Monet, whom he visits several times in Giverny, and by the opportunity to sketch en plein air during two summers in the Cotswolds village of Broadway, Worcestershire (1885–86). There, in an informal colony that includes American painters Francis Davis Millet and Edwin Austin Abbey, Sargent paints Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose (Tate, London), a lifesize depiction of illustrator Frederick Barnard's daughters lighting Japanese paper lanterns in Millet's garden. The canvas wins great acclaim when it is shown at the Royal Academy in 1887, and is purchased for the British nation. The honor assuages the doubts of critics and potential patrons, and Sargent's portraits—such as the animated likeness of Mrs. Hugh Hammersley (1892; MMA 1998.365), a British banker's wife depicted in an elegant magenta gown and seated on a luxuriously upholstered sofa—are soon sought after on both sides of the Atlantic. The French sculptor Auguste Rodin in 1902 describes Sargent as the "Van Dyck of the era." • 1886 British artists inspired by contemporary French art found the New English Art Club. The influence of French Salon painters is soon eclipsed by that of the Impressionists, promoted by club member Walter Richard Sickert (1860–1942; see MMA 1979.135.17). • 1892 J. M. Dent publishes the first installment of an edition of Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur. It features high contrast black-and white illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley (1872–1898), a young clerk encouraged by Edward Burne-Jones to pursue a career in art. Dent's publications, mass produced using the latest methods of reproduction, allow Beardsley's work to reach a far wider audience than the expensive handmade books produced by William Morris' Kelmscott Press. In 1894, Beardsley assumes the art editorship for the Yellow Book, a new quarterly for avant-garde literature and art. In the same year, Oscar Wilde's play Salome appears in print, translated from the French by Lord Alfred Douglas, the "Bosie" with whom Wilde is charged in 1895 with engaging in licentious acts. The overt eroticism of the play and its seventeen illustrations by Beardsley cause a scandal, and Beardsley is dismissed from his post. Though markedly influenced by the Aesthetes of the late nineteenth century, the French Rococo, and the aesthetic of Japanese prints, Beardsley's drawings probe new depths of symbolism and evoke a realm of decadence and illicit fantasy. In The Kiss, Salome raises the severed head of John the Baptist to her lips, a ribbon of blood flowing into a pool from which a lily blooms.
TIMELINE OF SOUTHERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 1800-1900
Meanwhile, Russia's influence in various parts of the Ottoman empire extends to the Balkan Peninsula, where it supports a number of independence movements in the Ottoman provinces of the region. The British also become involved; their plan to weaken the monolithic empire results in the independence of Greece and greater rights for Bulgaria and Serbia, though the latter remain under Ottoman rule.
• 1802 The Cisalpine Republic, comprising the territories of present-day Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna and ruled by Napoleon I (1769–1821), is renamed the Italian Republic; it is again renamed in 1805, with the addition of Venezia, as the Kingdom of Italy. Napoleon's stepson Eugène de Beauharnais (1781–1824) rules as viceroy, with a splendid court in Milan, until the emperor's downfall in 1814. By this time, France has annexed most of present-day Italy—including Savoy, Piedmont, Liguria, Tuscany, Parma, and the Papal States—and a French ruler sits on the throne of Naples. Pre-Napoleonic boundaries are largely reestablished at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15). • 1803 Bertel Thorvaldsen (1768/70–1844), a Danish sculptor active in Rome since 1797, produces Jason with the Golden Fleece (1803; Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen); this early work secures the young artist's fame in Rome, where he remains for most of his long and prolific career. The Jason is executed in a severe style influenced by ancient Greek sculpture, and Thorvaldsen's entire oeuvre is marked by an emulation of classical ideals in both form and subject matter. With a large studio of assistants, he produces relief sculpture, portrait busts inspired by Imperial Roman models, and memorials such as the tomb of Pius VII at Saint Peter's in Rome (1824–31). • 1804–13 People of the Ottoman province of Belgrade, long suffering from brutal governors and wars between the Turks and the Austrians, revolt against Ottoman rule. Their leader Djordje Petrovic (Karageorge, 1768?–1817) demands greater autonomy, a fixed tribute, and religious freedom. With Russian backing, his rebel armies win many cities, forming a miniature Serbian province; Belgrade becomes the capital after its capture in 1806. This fledgling state lasts until 1813, when the Ottomans regain control of their province. A second revolt in 1815–17 gains the Serbians further rights, but the struggle continues. Finally, after a war between Russia and the Ottomans, Serbia is named a principality and rebel leader Milos Obrenovic (ca. 1780–1860) is appointed prince in 1833. • 1808–39 Art produced during the reign of Ottoman sultan Mahmud II reflects European influences. The emperor adopts European forms of dress, refurbishes his palaces with furniture of Western design, and commissions the Nusretiye Mosque in the French Empire style. Western techniques of draftsmanship and oil painting flourish, superseding the production of small-scale works for manuscripts and albums. In 1831, Mahmud founds the first Turkish newspaper. • 1810 A group of young artists based in Vienna, led by Franz Pforr (1788–1812) and Friedrich Overbeck (1789–1869) and known collectively as the Brotherhood of Saint Luke (Lukasbrüder), travel to Rome and settle in the abandoned monastery of Sant'Isidoro. They adhere to the artistic goals of fidelity to nature and emotional purity, drawing inspiration from late medieval and early Renaissance painting, notably the works of Dürer and Raphael. The artists emulate a monastic lifestyle of poverty and chastity, wearing long cloaks, growing their hair long, and, above all, imbuing their art with a fervent sincerity of emotion and religious faith. This lifestyle, combined with the artists' spiritual subject matter earns them, around 1817, the pejorative nickname Die Nazarener (the Nazarenes). • 1814 The Bourbon monarchy is restored in Spain with the fall of Napoleon. Ferdinand VII (r. 1814–33), an absolutist ruler, revokes the Spanish constitution and launches a reign of terror. Brought before the reinstated Inquisition for his pledge of allegiance to Napoleon, painter Francisco de Goya y Lucientes (1746–1828) demonstrates his loyalty to the Bourbons in two paintings, The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808 (both Museo del Prado, Madrid), both commemorating Spain's uprising against the French regime. Goya continues his account of the atrocities of war in a series of eighty-five prints called The Disasters of War (1810–20; published posthumously). • 1821–30 The Greeks push for freedom from Ottoman rule, and also garner Russian support. An initial revolt is put down by Ottoman forces, but once the British intervene in 1827, the Greek war for independence gains momentum. Among the most passionate advocates for Greece is the English poet George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788–1824), who finances a Greek fleet and embarks for the Greek stronghold of Missolonghi at the end of 1823. In the midst of plans to attack the Turkish-held fortress of Lepanto, Byron falls ill; he dies at Missolonghi in April 1824, and is mourned as a hero by the Greeks, who bury his heart there. In 1826, Missolonghi falls to Turkish siege and, in desperation, the Greek insurgents ignite their powder magazines, killing themselves along with their enemies. French painter Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) responds to this tragedy in the allegorical canvas Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1826; Musée des Beaux-Arts, Bordeaux). The war concludes in 1830 when the combined forces of England, France, and Russia induce the Ottoman sultan to grant Greece its freedom. The Europeans then install a monarch of their choosing as the head of the country. The Bavarian prince Otto arrives in 1833 and is crowned king two years later. The freeing of Greece from Ottoman control gives foreign scholars greater access to the country; German archaeologists start work at Olympia and Athens in the 1830s, and the first excavations at the Parthenon take place in 1885–91. • 1830s Purismo, an Italian cultural movement originally intended to restore and preserve language through study of late medieval authors, extends to the visual arts. Inspired by the German Nazarenes, artists of the Purismo reject Neoclassicism and emulate the early works of Raphael and masters such as Giotto and Fra Angelico. The ideals of this movement are codified in the manifesto Del purismo nelle arti of 1842–43, written by Antonio Bianchini (1803–1884) and co-signed by Tommaso Minardi (1787–1871), the major proponent of Purismo, Nazarene co-founder Friedrich Overbeck (1789–1869), and Pietro Tenerani (1789–1869). The movement flourishes through 1860, and reflects the contemporary taste for revivalist styles, which in Italy is stirred by growing interest in Italian national identity and artistic heritage. • 1832 In a settlement to appease Muhammad cAli, governor of Egypt (1805–48), the Ottoman sultan grants him the island of Crete. It returns to Ottoman rule in 1840. • 1834 Athens is named capital of Greece, where the influence of German art and architecture predominates under its Bavarian monarch Otto I (r. 1833–62). Neoclassicism becomes the stylistic emblem of the emergent Greek national identity, as illustrated in the Royal Palace (1835–41; now the Parliament Building) of German architect Friedrich von Gärtner (1792–1847), and Agios Dionysios (1853–87), the Roman Catholic cathedral in Athens, designed by Leo von Klenze (1784–1864). • 1834–41 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) is head of the French Academy in Rome, where Davidian classicism in painting flourishes until mid-century. • mid-19th century A realist movement known as Verismo takes root in Italy. It is at first practiced mainly in Tuscany and Naples, where schools of landscape painting—such as the Neapolitan Scuola di Posillipo—develop along with an interest in genre scenes and the dignified portrayal of everyday labors. The ideals of Verismo are similarly espoused in literature and music, where they are given particularly vivid illustration in the operas of Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924), whose La Bohème (1896) elevates to monumental grandeur the trials of struggling young artists in Paris. • 1853–60 A group of artists called the Macchiaioli (literally, "spot-makers") emerges in Florence. Plein-air landscapists from the Scuola di Staggia and other Tuscan painters form the core of this group, united not only in opposition to the academic style professed by the Accademia di Belle Arti in Florence but also in ardent support of the nationalist movement that leads to the unification of Italy. Interested in—though not directly inspired by—contemporary French art movements such as the Barbizon School and Impressionism, the Macchiaioli explore contemporary theories of color and the relationship between color and form; the group is in fact so named (at first pejoratively) for the artists' juxtaposition of patches of color to create form and spatial depth. The Tuscan landscape and scenes of everyday life are their preferred subject matter; in this respect, they are associated with Verismo. • 1861 A nationalist movement known as the Risorgimento culminates in the unification of Italy. Venezia remains an Austrian possession, while Rome and Latium are retained by the papacy; the Kingdom of Italy incorporates Venezia in 1866, and Rome in 1870. • 1862 After King Otto of Greece is deposed, the European powers that had installed him on the throne choose a prince from the Danish royal house of Glücksberg to succeed him. He rules as King George I (r. 1863–1913). • 1864 As part of a plan to regain all areas with a Greek population, Greece conquers the Ionian islands. It will take Thessaly in 1881, Macedonia, Crete, Epirus, and the Aegean islands in 1913, western Thrace in 1918, and the Dodecanese islands in 1947, forming the modern borders of the country. • 1878 The Treaty of Berlin, which concludes a war between the Ottomans and Bosnian insurgents, grants independence to Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, and creates the principality of Bulgaria. The Austro-Hungarian empire keeps Slovenia and Croatia and gains control of Bosnia. • late 19th century In Palermo, Ernesto Basile (1857–1932) develops an Italian version of Art Nouveau, making the city a major center of Stile Liberty, as the style is called in Italy, after the London design firm of Liberty & Co. A major example is Basile's Hotel Villa Igiea (begun 1899), in which all elements of the decorative scheme incorporate the intertwining and asymmetrical organic forms of the Art Nouveau style. Other important centers of Stile Liberty are Turin and Milan, where its chief practitioners include the Milanese architect Giuseppe Sommaruga (1869–1917) and the designer Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940). • 1883 Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926) is appointed director of works on the Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia in Barcelona (begun 1882, still incomplete), a project that will occupy him for the rest of his life—though not exclusively until after 1910. In this and other buildings of the period, such as the Palau Güell (Barcelona, 1886–91), Gaudí develops a style that takes direct inspiration from nature. He uses organic motifs not only to ornament his buildings, but also to give them form, resulting in structures of remarkable plasticity. Gaudí is a major contributor to the emergence of Catalan Modernisme, a regional form of Art Nouveau. • 1890s After studying in Rome and Paris, Spanish painter Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida (1863–1923) settles in Valencia, where he develops a high-keyed palette and painterly style influenced by the French Impressionists. The seacoast town of Jávea, south of Valencia, provides Sorolla with the subjects for many of his paintings (09.71.2), which, by the turn of the century, earn the artist international renown. • 1897–1903 Els Quatre Gats, or the Four Cats café, is the meeting place of bohemian writers and artists in Barcelona. Founded by painters Santiago Rusinõl (1861–1931) and Ramón Casas (1866–1932), it is managed by amateur painter Pere Romeu and frequented by the puppeteer-folklorist Miquel Utrillo (1862–1934), painter Isidre Nonell (1873–1911)—a member (1893–96) of the Colla del Safrà (literally, "bunch of saffron"), a group of Catalan painters who favor a palette of "hot" colors—and the young Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), who has his first exhibition at the café in 1900. Many of the artists who gather at Els Quatre Gats dedicate their work to a realistic portrayal of bourgeois life in Barcelona, a "religion of art and truth," as described by Rusinõl. At this time, Els Quatre Gats unites many of the leading artistic and literary talents of the modernist movement in Southern Europe. • 1898 After a revolt in Crete, England, France, and Russia once again intervene in the region's politics, this time forcing the Ottomans to grant autonomy to the island.
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